Zhang Hongfan , was a Han Chinese general of the Yuan Dynasty in China. He annihilated the by crushing the last Song resistance in Battle of Yamen in 1279. He is also known for capturing the Song loyalist Wen Tianxiang .
Though some later books and retellings claim that Zhang was a traitor who turned against the Song Dynasty, this is not historically accurate. Zhang had never been part of the Song Dynasty. Some historians claim that Zhang was related to Zhang Shijie, a Song general who was drowned in battle against the Yuan.
Deng Guangjian, a fellow townsman of Wen Tianxiang, was the tutor to Zhang Hongfan's family after he was rescued from attempting to drown himself at the Battle of Yamen in March 1279. In his biography of Wen Tianxiang, Deng Guangjian describes Zhang Hongfan as courteous and friendly towards Wen after his capture. On his deathbed, Zhang had also pleaded to the Yuan Emperor Kublai Khan to spare the life of Wen Tianxiang. Aside from these descriptions in Wen's biography, Deng also wrote a preface to Zhang's various collected writings.
Wednesday, September 10, 2008
Guo Kan
Guo Kan was a famous general of Han Chinese descent that served the in their Western conquests and the conquest of China itself. He was descended from a lineage of Chinese generals. Both his father and grandfather had served the Khan, while his ancestor is Guo Ziyi, a famed general of the Tang Dynasty.
Along with Jebe and Subutai, he was one of the Mongol's most able commanders, and many of the later conquests of the Mongols were done by armies under his command. The biography of this Mongol commander in the '''' said that Guo Kan's presence struck so much fear in his foes, that they called him the "Divine Man".
Guo Kan was raised in the household of Prime Minister Shi Tianzhe .
He took part in the final drive in the conquest of the , including the capture of Kaifeng, and may have served in the European campaign with Subutai a few years following the fall of the Jin Dynasty. He then served in Hulagu's invasion of the Middle East, playing a major role in the capture and , reportedly devising the strategy of using the to drown the Caliph's army, and supervising the reduction of Baghdad's walls. and at some point after Khubilai Khan's accession as Khan, Guo Kan went to serve him, instead of his brother, and assisted Khubilai Khan in the conquest of the Southern Song, and ultimately the unification of China proper under the Yuan Dynasty.
The ''Yuan Shi'' is known to contain many errors. It is proven that many events after 1259 in Guo Kan's biography are false since he returned to Mongolia with Hulagu Khan after the death of Mongke Khan in China.
The ''Yuan Shi'' in many ways resembled historical fiction, claiming all manner of conquests by Guo Kan which were not true, but nonetheless were legend in China for many years. Contrary to claims in the ''Yuan Shi'', the Mamluks of Egypt crushed the Mongol occupation army and their Christian allies at Ain Jalut led by Hulagu's lieutenant ; and the Crusader Kingdoms Mecca and Cyprus were neither conquered by the Mongols.
This biography of Guo is mostly open lies in what seems to be an attempt to hide the crushing defeats inflicted on the Mongols at Ain Jalut, and on Hulagu by Berke Khan in the first Mongol on Mongol war in the Transcaucasus. It must be noted that Ain Jalut took place while Guo Kan was in Mongolia with Hulagu during the selection of a Great Khan. Guo Kan, like Hulagu, had believed the force left to occupy Palestine was sufficient enough to deal with the Mamluks, which it was obviously not, and that the Il-Khanate could defeat the Golden Horde, which it equally could not.
After he returned to Mongolia with Hulagu Khan after Mongke Khan's death, Guo Kan was taken from Hulagu's command, and assigned by the New Great Khan to aid him in the difficult conquest of Southern Song China. 's accession as Khan left him able to select the best of the Mongol Generals to serve him. Subutai and Jebe were both dead of old age, and Guo Kan was the last of the dreaded Dogs of War. Therefore the new Great Khan took him to assist Khubilai Khan in the final conquest of China. Guo Kan reportedly urged him to adopt a Chinese-style dynastic title, establish a capital and central government, and build schools. He reportedly was the general who proposed capturing Xiangyang as a strategy for invading the Southern Song. He defeated Song forces in a in 1262, and in 1266 urged Khubilai to establish military farms in Huaibei to provide supplies for an invasion of the Southern Song. In 1268 and 1270 he suppressed local rebellions, and then he was sent to participate in the . In 1276, the Song dynasty fell , and Guo served as a prefect for one more year before dying.
More than any army in history until the 20th Century, and more so than many even in the Modern Era, the Mongols promoted strictly on the basis of military skill and ability. Like his brother "dogs of war," Jebe, son of an ordinary warrior in a tribe which had opposed Ghenghis Khan in his unification of the nomads, and Subutai, son of a blacksmith, Guo Kan, ethnically Han Chinese, represented the revolutionary concept of promoting the sons of the most humble, or foreign born, to command any of the Mongol nobility - including relatives of the Great Khan. Though Batu was nominally in charge of the invasion of Europe, it was Subutai who truly commanded. Equally, Guo Kan devised the strategy which reduced the powerful walls of Bagdad in mere days, after destroying her small, but brave and disciplined army in mere hours by drowning them. Merit, not birth, was one of Ghenghis Khan's most brilliant innovations, and Guo Kan, an ethnic of the Mongol's strongest rival, one of his prized dogs of war for five generations of Great Khans.
Along with Jebe and Subutai, he was one of the Mongol's most able commanders, and many of the later conquests of the Mongols were done by armies under his command. The biography of this Mongol commander in the '''' said that Guo Kan's presence struck so much fear in his foes, that they called him the "Divine Man".
Birth and lineage
Guo Kan was raised in the household of Prime Minister Shi Tianzhe .
Military legacy
He took part in the final drive in the conquest of the , including the capture of Kaifeng, and may have served in the European campaign with Subutai a few years following the fall of the Jin Dynasty. He then served in Hulagu's invasion of the Middle East, playing a major role in the capture and , reportedly devising the strategy of using the to drown the Caliph's army, and supervising the reduction of Baghdad's walls. and at some point after Khubilai Khan's accession as Khan, Guo Kan went to serve him, instead of his brother, and assisted Khubilai Khan in the conquest of the Southern Song, and ultimately the unification of China proper under the Yuan Dynasty.
The ''Yuan Shi''
The ''Yuan Shi'' is known to contain many errors. It is proven that many events after 1259 in Guo Kan's biography are false since he returned to Mongolia with Hulagu Khan after the death of Mongke Khan in China.
The ''Yuan Shi'' in many ways resembled historical fiction, claiming all manner of conquests by Guo Kan which were not true, but nonetheless were legend in China for many years. Contrary to claims in the ''Yuan Shi'', the Mamluks of Egypt crushed the Mongol occupation army and their Christian allies at Ain Jalut led by Hulagu's lieutenant ; and the Crusader Kingdoms Mecca and Cyprus were neither conquered by the Mongols.
This biography of Guo is mostly open lies in what seems to be an attempt to hide the crushing defeats inflicted on the Mongols at Ain Jalut, and on Hulagu by Berke Khan in the first Mongol on Mongol war in the Transcaucasus. It must be noted that Ain Jalut took place while Guo Kan was in Mongolia with Hulagu during the selection of a Great Khan. Guo Kan, like Hulagu, had believed the force left to occupy Palestine was sufficient enough to deal with the Mamluks, which it was obviously not, and that the Il-Khanate could defeat the Golden Horde, which it equally could not.
Guo Kan's role in the final conquest of China under Khubilai Khan
After he returned to Mongolia with Hulagu Khan after Mongke Khan's death, Guo Kan was taken from Hulagu's command, and assigned by the New Great Khan to aid him in the difficult conquest of Southern Song China. 's accession as Khan left him able to select the best of the Mongol Generals to serve him. Subutai and Jebe were both dead of old age, and Guo Kan was the last of the dreaded Dogs of War. Therefore the new Great Khan took him to assist Khubilai Khan in the final conquest of China. Guo Kan reportedly urged him to adopt a Chinese-style dynastic title, establish a capital and central government, and build schools. He reportedly was the general who proposed capturing Xiangyang as a strategy for invading the Southern Song. He defeated Song forces in a in 1262, and in 1266 urged Khubilai to establish military farms in Huaibei to provide supplies for an invasion of the Southern Song. In 1268 and 1270 he suppressed local rebellions, and then he was sent to participate in the . In 1276, the Song dynasty fell , and Guo served as a prefect for one more year before dying.
Guo Kan's place in history as example of the Mongol meritocracy
More than any army in history until the 20th Century, and more so than many even in the Modern Era, the Mongols promoted strictly on the basis of military skill and ability. Like his brother "dogs of war," Jebe, son of an ordinary warrior in a tribe which had opposed Ghenghis Khan in his unification of the nomads, and Subutai, son of a blacksmith, Guo Kan, ethnically Han Chinese, represented the revolutionary concept of promoting the sons of the most humble, or foreign born, to command any of the Mongol nobility - including relatives of the Great Khan. Though Batu was nominally in charge of the invasion of Europe, it was Subutai who truly commanded. Equally, Guo Kan devised the strategy which reduced the powerful walls of Bagdad in mere days, after destroying her small, but brave and disciplined army in mere hours by drowning them. Merit, not birth, was one of Ghenghis Khan's most brilliant innovations, and Guo Kan, an ethnic of the Mongol's strongest rival, one of his prized dogs of war for five generations of Great Khans.
Bayan of the Baarin
Bayan of the Baarin , also known as "Bayan chingsang" or, to Marco Polo, as "Bayan Hundred Eyes", served as a general. He commanded the army of Kublai Khan against the Song Dynasty of China, ushering in the Song collapse and the conquest by the Yuan Dynasty of .
Born a grandnephew of Nayagha, a general under Genghis Khan, Bayan came from the Baarin tribe. Nayagha, together with Bayan's grandfather Alagh and Alagh's and Nayagha's father Shirgügetü Ebügen, appear in the ''Secret History of the Mongols''.
However, at least one well-respected scholar presents Bayan as a whose family had long served the Great Khans.
While Bayan served in Persia with Hulegu's army, Kublai Khan recalled him. His father died during the Mongol siege of the stronghold of the . Kublai liked him, but he did not hold commanding rank in the Yuan army. After the success of the Battle of Xiangyang in 1273, Kublai appointed Bayan as the commander of the Yuan army., the Golden Horde court released Nomukhan and sent him to Yuan Dynasty. Rashi ad-Din wrote that released Nomukhan and expressed his willingness to submit to Kublai. But some historians think that Mongketemur released the prince after 10 years hostage in Crimea.
Kublai recalled Bayan when Nai-yan reportedly planned rebellion in the areas between the Onon and Kerulen rivers of Mongolia. Bayan went to meet Nao-yan and failed to persuade Nai-yan. Bayan fled back to the Mongol capital. A Mongol minister recommended to Kublai that pacifying the khanates in the west would lead Nayan to submit. Kublai therefore ordered this minister to go west: and he claimed that Nai-yan had already submitted to Kublai. Hence the khanates all succumbed to Khubilai. After that, Khubilai led an army northward against Nai-yan. Seeing that his Mongol soldiers fraternized with the Nai-yan soldiers, Khubilai adopted the advice of a Chinese in having the Chinese army act as the forerunner column. General Li Ting tricked Nai-yan into a retreat and then defeated Nai-yan's army of 100,000 in a night attack with cannons. Nai-yan was captured and executed. The battle was later reported by Marco Polo to Europe.
A remnant of Nai-yan's people then fled to Manchuria and attacked eastern Liaoning Province. The Liaodong Xuanweishi of the Yuan, Ta-chu , asked for aid, and Kublai sent his son over. Ta-chu defeated the Nai-yan remnants under Khadan and chased them westward to the . Ta-chu won the title of ''wan hu''. Nai-yan remnants, however, still remained for some time.
Bayan received orders to counter Kaidu, who harassed in the west; and Prince had the duty of guarding the Liao River area in the east. When a Mongol official defected to Kaidu and attacked Kublai's grandson Kamala near Hang'aishan Mountain, Kublai would lead a column to the north. Kaidu retreated thereafter. Bayan would continue warfare with Kaidu for some time before he left the post at Helin. Unfortunately, some ministers accused him of Kaidu's desertion. He was sent to China far away from Mongolia for a while. Temur was appointed a governor in Karakorum and Bayan became a minister.
Bayan met and swore loyalty to Kublai Khan before the latter's death in 1294. With the support of minister Bayan Kublai's grandson Timur became Kublai's successor, the Emperor Chengzong after the Yuan court went through a power vacuum for a few months. Bayan died the following year.
Background
Born a grandnephew of Nayagha, a general under Genghis Khan, Bayan came from the Baarin tribe. Nayagha, together with Bayan's grandfather Alagh and Alagh's and Nayagha's father Shirgügetü Ebügen, appear in the ''Secret History of the Mongols''.
However, at least one well-respected scholar presents Bayan as a whose family had long served the Great Khans.
Early career
While Bayan served in Persia with Hulegu's army, Kublai Khan recalled him. His father died during the Mongol siege of the stronghold of the . Kublai liked him, but he did not hold commanding rank in the Yuan army. After the success of the Battle of Xiangyang in 1273, Kublai appointed Bayan as the commander of the Yuan army., the Golden Horde court released Nomukhan and sent him to Yuan Dynasty. Rashi ad-Din wrote that released Nomukhan and expressed his willingness to submit to Kublai. But some historians think that Mongketemur released the prince after 10 years hostage in Crimea.
Kublai recalled Bayan when Nai-yan reportedly planned rebellion in the areas between the Onon and Kerulen rivers of Mongolia. Bayan went to meet Nao-yan and failed to persuade Nai-yan. Bayan fled back to the Mongol capital. A Mongol minister recommended to Kublai that pacifying the khanates in the west would lead Nayan to submit. Kublai therefore ordered this minister to go west: and he claimed that Nai-yan had already submitted to Kublai. Hence the khanates all succumbed to Khubilai. After that, Khubilai led an army northward against Nai-yan. Seeing that his Mongol soldiers fraternized with the Nai-yan soldiers, Khubilai adopted the advice of a Chinese in having the Chinese army act as the forerunner column. General Li Ting tricked Nai-yan into a retreat and then defeated Nai-yan's army of 100,000 in a night attack with cannons. Nai-yan was captured and executed. The battle was later reported by Marco Polo to Europe.
A remnant of Nai-yan's people then fled to Manchuria and attacked eastern Liaoning Province. The Liaodong Xuanweishi of the Yuan, Ta-chu , asked for aid, and Kublai sent his son over. Ta-chu defeated the Nai-yan remnants under Khadan and chased them westward to the . Ta-chu won the title of ''wan hu''. Nai-yan remnants, however, still remained for some time.
Bayan received orders to counter Kaidu, who harassed in the west; and Prince had the duty of guarding the Liao River area in the east. When a Mongol official defected to Kaidu and attacked Kublai's grandson Kamala near Hang'aishan Mountain, Kublai would lead a column to the north. Kaidu retreated thereafter. Bayan would continue warfare with Kaidu for some time before he left the post at Helin. Unfortunately, some ministers accused him of Kaidu's desertion. He was sent to China far away from Mongolia for a while. Temur was appointed a governor in Karakorum and Bayan became a minister.
Later life
Bayan met and swore loyalty to Kublai Khan before the latter's death in 1294. With the support of minister Bayan Kublai's grandson Timur became Kublai's successor, the Emperor Chengzong after the Yuan court went through a power vacuum for a few months. Bayan died the following year.
Koke Temur
K?ke Temür was a Naiman general of the , later Northern Yuan, dynasty. His mother was the daughter of a Mongolian prince while his father was a Chinese whose surname was ''Wang''. Before he was given the Mongolian name by the Yuan court, he assumed the Chinese name of Wang Baobao . He is notable as the "best-known Mongol general" and "one of the greatest Yuan generals".
He lived in Henan province. He was a nephew of and was adopted by Chaghan Temür, a pro-dynasty warlord who fought against the Red Turban Rebellion. When his uncle died in war in Shandong in 1362, he succeeded Chaghan Temür's post and corps, and soon demonstrated military talent in battles with the Red Turban Rebels in Shandong.
He intensified a feud with Bolad Temür a Datong-based warlord, and entered Taiyuan to confront him. He took the side of Crown Prince against the faction of in a factional dispute in Dadu since Bolad Temür supported the anti-crown prince faction.
In 1364, Bolad Temür advanced from Datong on Dadu and seized the reins of the central government under the khan. Crown Prince Ayushiridar fled to Taiyuan to seek support from K?ke Temür. The Crown Prince struck back with K?ke Temür, and Bolad Temür was betrayed when K?ke Temür attacked Dadu in 1365. He reinstated the Crown Prince, and was appointed as vice minister of the Secretariat and the king of Henan in return. However, this conflict helped Zhu Yuanzhang rise into power in southern China.
K?ke Temür commanded the Yuan army against anti-Yuan rebels, but faced betrayal by subordinates including Chinese officers who had followed him since the very early stage. What was worse was that he got alienated from Ayushiridar, who was given political and military controls by Toghun Temür Khan. After two major defeats , he lost Henan and Taiyuan to the rising Ming corps and fled to Gansu. The Yuan Dynasty was forced to retreat from China in 1368.
In 1370 when Toghun Temur died and Ayushiridar succeeded to the throne , Koke Temur entered the Mongolian Plateau from Gansu and joined the new khan, who was based on Khara Khorum. He undertook the defense of the khan. The most notable service was an overwhelming desert victory over a Ming army led by Xu Da in 1372. It is said that he killed 20,000 Ming soldiers. But in a further encounter against Xu Da in Gansu, K?ke Temür's army was badly mauled by the Chinese and forced to flee across the Gobi desert.
He advanced southward with the Yuan troops to take China back for the Mongols, and expanded his influence to Shanxi. However, he died in 1375 and was followed by Ayushiridar in 1378. Their deaths radically weakened the Mongol state, extinguishing any hope of recapturing China.
He lived in Henan province. He was a nephew of and was adopted by Chaghan Temür, a pro-dynasty warlord who fought against the Red Turban Rebellion. When his uncle died in war in Shandong in 1362, he succeeded Chaghan Temür's post and corps, and soon demonstrated military talent in battles with the Red Turban Rebels in Shandong.
He intensified a feud with Bolad Temür a Datong-based warlord, and entered Taiyuan to confront him. He took the side of Crown Prince against the faction of in a factional dispute in Dadu since Bolad Temür supported the anti-crown prince faction.
In 1364, Bolad Temür advanced from Datong on Dadu and seized the reins of the central government under the khan. Crown Prince Ayushiridar fled to Taiyuan to seek support from K?ke Temür. The Crown Prince struck back with K?ke Temür, and Bolad Temür was betrayed when K?ke Temür attacked Dadu in 1365. He reinstated the Crown Prince, and was appointed as vice minister of the Secretariat and the king of Henan in return. However, this conflict helped Zhu Yuanzhang rise into power in southern China.
K?ke Temür commanded the Yuan army against anti-Yuan rebels, but faced betrayal by subordinates including Chinese officers who had followed him since the very early stage. What was worse was that he got alienated from Ayushiridar, who was given political and military controls by Toghun Temür Khan. After two major defeats , he lost Henan and Taiyuan to the rising Ming corps and fled to Gansu. The Yuan Dynasty was forced to retreat from China in 1368.
In 1370 when Toghun Temur died and Ayushiridar succeeded to the throne , Koke Temur entered the Mongolian Plateau from Gansu and joined the new khan, who was based on Khara Khorum. He undertook the defense of the khan. The most notable service was an overwhelming desert victory over a Ming army led by Xu Da in 1372. It is said that he killed 20,000 Ming soldiers. But in a further encounter against Xu Da in Gansu, K?ke Temür's army was badly mauled by the Chinese and forced to flee across the Gobi desert.
He advanced southward with the Yuan troops to take China back for the Mongols, and expanded his influence to Shanxi. However, he died in 1375 and was followed by Ayushiridar in 1378. Their deaths radically weakened the Mongol state, extinguishing any hope of recapturing China.
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